1. I. Content Questions A:  Energy Related
   
   

TEXT READINGS: Chap 12 and p. 39-43, 214-229

General Websites:
Adventures in Energy.com -

CHEMISTRY AND ENERGY

A flow of energy is absolutely essential to drive the important chemical cycles throughout the earth, atmosphere, water, and living matter. Much of the history and development of civilization revolves around the discovery and use of energy sources which could replace human muscle power. The use of energy has been the key to adequate food supplies, physical comfort, and to improving the quality of life.

ENERGY is the capacity of a substance for doing work. This definition implies that a substance can have both potential and kinetic energy.

1. Definitions and Forms of Energy
Text p. 69-73, 198-201

 A. Potential, Kinetic, and other Forms of Energy; Transformations of energy

Energy definition

 POTENTIAL ENERGY: This is stored energy by virtue of its composition (chemical compounds) or energy related to an object by its relative position.

Potential energy by position - water behind a dam.
Potential energy by composition - gasoline, a battery.

 KINETIC ENERGY: Kinetic energy is produced by a substance in motion.

Falling water change potential energy into kinetic energy.
Combustion of gasoline produces rapidly moving molecules. The battery produces moving electrons.

 The common forms of energy include:

1. Mechanical - motors, levers, gears, pulleys, muscles.
2. Chemical - reactions of molecules with each other.
3. Electrical - movement of electrons through materials.
4. Thermal - transfer of heat energy.
5. Nuclear - matter in atoms is converted into energy usually as heat.
6. Radiant or Light - from the sun or other "burning" reactions.

Examples of energy conversion into various forms of energy:

One form of energy can be converted into other forms of energy. For example burning coal at an electrical power plant converts chemical energy into heat. The heat makes steam which turns turbines (mechanical energy) to make electrical energy. The electrical energy is converted back into heat, light, and mechanical energy when it is used.

You may answer only a. or b.  In your answers include potential and kinetic energy and various forms of energy.

QUES. 1a: Try to think about all the types of energy and conversion of forms of energy for starting and driving a car. Start at two places - the battery (p. 207) and gasoline (p. 362-64)

OR

QUES. 1b: Try to think about all the types of energy and conversion of forms of energy for eating and then digesting a steak. Start with the sun (p. 45, 455-460)

Text p. 39-43

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 Heat is the total kinetic energy of all moving atoms or molecules in a given substance. The amount of heat of contained in an object depends upon the amount of substance present. Heat is measured in calories or joules.

 Temperature is a measure of the average speed of motion of the atoms and molecules. The temperature of objects of very different sizes will have the same temperature under the identical conditions. Temperature is measured in Fahrenheit or Celsius degrees.

A hot cup of coffee has a high temperature but a low heat content compared to lake Michigan which has a much lower temperature, but a very high heat content because of the large volume.

C. Energy from the sun

nuclear fusion (H + H -> He)

electromagnetic spectrum

NOTES: (Various types of energy - UV relates to breakdown of ozone, Visible and IR relates to greenhouse gases)

 ProfONotes: Explanatory notes with energy from sun and electromagnetic spectrum

 A. Spontaneous Reactions - Exo and endothermic reactions

  Text p. 163-64

Bond Energy

QUES. 2: Define exo and endothermic reactions. Select four of equations/reactions on the following pages, list whether they are exo or endothermic. p. 152, 164 (three of them), 165, 170 top. Explain how you know the answer.

Text p. 163-64

ProfONotes: Combustion Reaction Energy from Bond Energies

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B. Law of Conservation of Energy or First Law of Thermodynamics

Text p. 41

Law of Conservation of Energy

 C. Second Law of Thermodynamics - you can't break even (Energy Efficiency), entropy

 Text p. 41-42

Thermodynamics - Second Law

QUES. 3: Define Law of Conservation of Energy, Second Law of Thermodynamics, and Entropy. Give one or two examples.  

Text p. 41-42

Law of Conservation of Energy

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3. Energy Use in Different Societies

 A. Natural energy cycles for the earth; Food Chains, Tropic Levels (Text p. 43-47)

ProfONotes: Carbon Cycle

 B. Energy efficiency of human diet: meat vs. cereal crops and plants

 (Text p. 43-44)
ProfONotes: Food Energy

QUES. 4: What are the implications for the food supply resources for an ever increasing population that is getting richer and therefore is switching to a diet with more meat as is happening in China today?  Are we going to be able to feed the world meat or is it more efficient to feed them grain?  or are we going to run out of food?

 Text p. 44 Figure 2.15

China's Emerging Use of Resources - a pdf file

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100. C.Energy use in primitive society, agricultural, third world societies (early industrial), and in industrial societies, especially the U. S.

     

     
     
     

Satellite view of the lights on earth
Lights on the U. S.

Energy Flow Chart of U. S. 2008 - Sources and End uses

QUES. 5: Compare two countries - the USA and one other of your choice. What may be some reasons why the United States seems to be the largest user of energy than other modern industrial societies such as Europe and Japan. Use the link on the right. You do not have to read everything for a country , but try to pick a few highlights.

Energy Summary by Country

 D. Sustainable Society

4. Organic Compounds

Hydrocarbons, alkanes, nomenclature, bonding and structures. - Use an overview approach to some simple compounds that are present in the fossil fuels of coal, oil, and natural gas.

 Text p. 214-228
ProfONotes:  Gasoline

Do both a and b parts of this question.

QUES. 6a: What is unique about carbon compounds? What is a definition of hydrocarbons? What is a main structural feature of various organic compounds such as propane and butane vs some simple inorganic compounds. Hint: Look at the number of the same atoms bonded together.

b. Finally, what is the physical "state" of natural gas, methane, gasoline, octane based upon boiling points? What is the general trend as you increase the number of carbons in a chain, the boiling point ___?

ProfONotes: Boiling Points

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5. Energy from the combustion of Fossil Fuels -  Chap 14

 A. General Combustion Reaction

Text p. 223, 328

The combustion of all fossil fuels follows a very similar reaction:

Fossil Fuel (any hydrocarbon source) plus oxygen yields  CARBON DIOXIDE and water and ENERGY.

ProfONotes: Carbon Cycle

ProfONotes: Combustion Reaction Energy from Bond Energies

 B. Anatomy of an Electric Power Plant- heat water-steam-turbine-generator (coil of wire rotated in a magnetic field)-electricity

Text p. 387-88

ProfONotes: Anatomy of an Electric Power Plant
Coal to kilowatts graphics - a good one
Vision 21 - Power Plant of the future

100. C.Environmental Impacts - Air Pollution - Briefly, more later under Topics 8 & 9 - Air pollution - Carbon, Sulfur, and Nitrogen Oxides.  Technically, even though various sources are saying so, carbon dioxide is not an air pollutant.  Carbon dioxide is not harmful to your lungs or any other part of your body.  The EPA has just declared that it is a chemical that can be regulated due to the effect on global warming. This will be the subject of the issue discussion.
     
     

 Text p. 328-331

QUES. 7: Review and describe the entire process of making electricity from fossil fuels such as coal. In addition, apply the definitions from sections 1 & 2 to all of the forms and changes in energy for the entire process starting with coal and ending with flipping a light switch on. You should make a list of at least 5-6 items. Various students should look at this carefully to be sure that all the types of energy and processes are listed.

Text p. 377-381

See Links in sections 5A and B above.

Each student may answer part 8a. or 8b. for credit. 

QUES. 8: a.  Briefly describe how a petroleum fractional distillation works. In addition, which compound would have a higher boiling point, C15H32 or C18H38? Which would condense at the lowest point on the distilling column? (see table 12.4 p. 367 and ProfO Notes).

b.  During the late winter, a refiner makes more gasoline for the summer. If the crude is producing more lubricating oil than necessary, which of the above processes (cracking, isomerization, catalytic reforming or alkylation) would be used to make gasoline? Discuss how each of the other above processes can help to make gasoline.

ProfONotes: Review Boiling Points of Hydrocarbons
ProfONotes: Oil Refining
ProfONotes: Oil Refining (cont)

Details on Gasoline Price - large pdf file

China increases in oil imports -

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II.  Molecule or Report of the Week:  Fossil Fuels

Modern society would not exist without the production and consumption of huge amounts of energy.  The vast majority of this energy comes from fossil fuels.  They are called “fossil” fuels because the carbon in the form of carbon dioxides was captured in pants and animals that were in very plentiful supply millions of years a ago.  The carbon in these plant and animal sources have been changed under high pressure and heat in the fuels we now know as coal, oil, and natural gas, hence - fossil fuels.

6. Fossil Fuel Resources -

 A. Oil, oil drilling, - application of distillation, Octane rating, oil shale and sands, Petrochemical industry

Text p. 364-372

ProfONotes: Fossil Fuels

ProfONotes: Review Boiling Points of Hydrocarbons

ProfONotes: Oil Refining

ProfONotes: Oil Refining (cont)

Animation of the Refining of Oil - Excellent

Petroleum - Modern Refining

2. B.Natural Gas-methane, LPG-propane and butane
   We are currently well aware of using natural gas in heating your house and heating the water.  But did you also know that natural gas is used in what are known as peaker power plants.  These are only run when there is a peak demand for electricity as on very hot days.  The only problem is that natural gas is very expensive for this operation.
   

Text p. 373
High Risk Fracturing Process - the latest method to obtain natural gas - a must read.

Peaker Power Plants -

ProfONotes: Natural Gas

Natural Gas,org

Natural Gas Use and Reserves

 C. Coal Types, Coal mining- deep mines, strip mines, pollution

Text p. 373-76

Mountain Top Removal -  a controversial procedure to mine coal -  a must read
Photos of mountain top coal mining - must see if you are going to write about coal.
Coal to kilowatts graphics - a good one
Online Kentucky Coal Facts Look at Types of Mining, History of Coal, Coal Markets, Environment

Coal to alternative gas and liquid fuels -
FutureGen - a proposed coal electric power plant to capture CO2.
Coal Plant Pollution Control Technologies - Click on a few of the subtopics - latest in clean technologies
ProfOGraphic: Coal - Transport - Ship to River Barge

500. D.Synfuels, Coal gasification
     The idea behind this is to be able to continue to use coal as an energy source. There are enormous reserves of coal in the US, China and other countries.  But to burn it directly is very dirty with air pollution (we have greatly increased the air pollution controls, but China has not.)  The problem will still remain on how to capture the carbon dioxide which is produced.
     

Text p. 375-76

Coal liquification - Wikipedia

Coal Gasification - EPA
Coal Gasification - Wikipedia
Underground Coal Gasification - Wikipedia --

Clean Coal Technology - Wikipedia

5. E. Oil (Tar) Sands in Canada
   
   Slide show presentation -
   Athabasca Oil Sands - Wikipedia - comprehensive article
   Photos showing sequence of mining Athabasca oil sands - click on the dots to see the sequence.
   Alberta Oil Sands -
   
   Block an oil sands pipeline - anti view
   
   

6. F.Oil Shale in northern US and Rockies
   High Risk Fossil Fuel Boom in US - oil shale great article
   Oil Shale - Wkipedia
   Oil Shale - Econobrowser
   Oil Shale report - Rand Corp - long but could read summary
   
   

Fossil Fuel Report:

Currently most coal is burned in electric power plants to produce electricity. What is oil and natural gas used for? Look at the energy benefits as well as the environmental impacts.  The other types of fossil fuel use may be in the developing stages.  All of them produce carbon dioxide which is a green house gas.  There are currently various world wide plans to limit the amount of carbon dioxide which can be emitted which will be the subject of the issue in this topic.

Select ONE of the following fossil fuels (about 3 people can do each one):

Coal, petroleum, natural gas, synfuel from coal to liquids, synfuel from coal to gas, oil sand, oil shale, clean coal technology

The report should include the following:
Where is it found?  How is it produced?  How is it processed further into usable form? 
What is the possible environmental impact in producing it?  What can be done to limit this impact?
List some pros and cons about the use of the fossil fuel of your choice.

Text p. 364-376

See the links in section 6 - A-F above.
Adventures in Energy.com -

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III.  Content Questions B:  Global Warming Related

Objective 3:  Hypothesis Analysis

INTRODUCTION:

Global Warming:  The major question is whether the global climate is warming as a result of human activities which are altering the composition of the atmosphere and effecting the natural greenhouse effect. A build up of greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide, has occurred, is well documented, and is not disputed. There is some uncertainty about whether the world climate temperature has increased as a result of the increase in the greenhouse gases are human caused. Various measures of temperatures in the atmosphere have been taken by various measuring devices including satellites, at various locations, at various heights in the atmosphere, and even the sea surface.  A careful examination of all of these temperature measures indicates a general warming trend.

The major dispute is whether the increase in carbon dioxide  and the increase in temperature is caused by human activities mainly associated with the burning of fossil fuels.  A modern society uses very large amounts of energy in three main categories - electricity, transportation, and heating for homes, factories, and manufacturing products.  Currently, the vast majority of the this energy is produced by the burning of fossil fuels of oil, natural gas, and coal.  The general combustion reaction is: hydrocarbon fuel plus oxygen yields carbon dioxide, water, and energy.  Each person in the U.S. in personally responsible for producing 5.61 tons of carbon dioxide per year.

“The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) was completed in early 2007. Like previous assessment reports, it consists of four reports, three of them from its working groups.

Working Group I dealt with the "Physical Science Basis of Climate Change." The Working Group I Summary for Policymakers (SPM) was published on February 2, 2007 and revised on February 5, 2007. There was also a February 2, 2007 press release. The full WGI report was published in March. The key conclusions of the SPM were that:

▪Warming of the climate system is unequivocal.

▪Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (human) greenhouse gas concentrations.

▪Anthropogenic warming and sea level rise would continue for centuries due to the timescales associated with climate processes and feedbacks, even if greenhouse gas concentrations were to be stabilized, although the likely amount of temperature and sea level rise varies greatly depending on the fossil intensity of human activity during the next century (pages 13 and 18).

▪The probability that this is caused by natural climatic processes alone is less than 5%.

▪World temperatures could rise by between 1.1 and 6.4 °C (2.0 and 11.5 °F) during the 21st century (table 3) and that:

▪Sea levels will probably rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.08 to 23.22 in) [table 3].

▪There is a confidence level >90% that there will be more frequent warm spells, heat waves and heavy rainfall.

▪There is a confidence level >66% that there will be an increase in droughts, tropical cyclones and extreme high tides.

▪Both past and future anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions will continue to contribute to warming and sea level rise for more than a millennium.

▪Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre-industrial values over the past 650,000 years” Quotation from Wikipedia.

A main objection to the Koyto treaty is that undeveloped countries - mainly China and India were not required to reduce carbon dioxide. Continued negotiations of various groups sponsored by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change took place at Bali, Indonesia, December 3-15, 2007. Agreement on a time line for negotiation on the post 2012 framework (a successor to the Kyoto Protocol) was achieved. These negotiations will take place during 2008 in Poznan, Poland and 2009  in Copenhagen. No agreement was reached at this conference. The United States in currently participating in these negotiations.  The United States Senate did not pass a bill last year to control greenhouse gases.

Research Sites:

General information:

EPA Global Warming Site - very comprehensive and complete

Environmental Defense Fund series on Global Warming - Explore this site with many graphics and also skeptics questions with rebuttals.

Climate Change - Many Links to fact sheets - look on left side for contents

Global Warming - good presentation

1. Global Warming

Global Warming - an introduction. The major question is whether the global climate is warming as a result of human activities which are altering the composition of the atmosphere and effecting the natural greenhouse effect. A build up of greenhouse gases, primarily carbon dioxide, has occurred and is not disputed. There is uncertainty about whether the world climate temperature has increased as a result of the increase in the greenhouse gases and whether it is caused by human activities.

Graphic Slides  - Excellent Visual summaries of concepts -UNEP - Click on some of the table of contents links.

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

Greenhouse Effect graphic - UNEP


What are greenhouse gases and how do they work?

ProfONotes: Greenhouse gases -

Infrared Spectra of Greenhouses gases - ChemLinks Module - These show where the various molecules absorb Infared radiation which is responsible for the warming effect.

 Are Global Temperatures Increasing?

Graphic of Global temperature Trends - UNEP

Temperature Trends continue in 1999 - Earth Observatory
Photos show temperature variations

Global Temperature Trends - ChemConnections

QUES. 10: Talk about the energy balance on the earth in relation to the earth and the sun.  What is the electromagnetic spectrum? Explain the operation of a greenhouse or the inside of your car on a sunny day?  How does the presence of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere behave like the greenhouse analog?

ProfONotes: Explanatory notes with energy from sun and electromagnetic spectrum

ProfONotes: Greenhouse gases and greenhouse effect

QUES. 11: From your reading did you find at least 3-4 other gases that are also considered greenhouse gases? Explain further. What are there sources? How significant are their effects?

QUES. 12: How good is the temperature data that is being used to support the theory of global warming?  What is the evidence that global temperatures are increasing or we really can not tell?  Can this data be used as an absolute proven fact that global warming is already occurring or will occur?

2. Evidence for Global Warming

 Ice Core Data

ProfONotes: Evidence for Global Warming

Ice core Information on temperature - Australian Antarctic Division

 Polar Ice and Land Glaciers

Polar and Land Glacier Ice Melting - Earth Observatory

Current Climate Clues in the Ice - Earth Observatory

 Other Climate Indicators

Phytoplankton and Climate Change - Earth Observatory

Carbon Release from Frozen Soils - Earth Observatory

Evidence that the carbon dioxide is coming from fossil fuels.
Carbon Isotopic ratios -

Human Causes of Carbon Dioxide -

 Evidence from Climate Change Models

Evidence from Climate Change Models
Evidence from Past Climates
Climate Models: How Reliable are their Predictions? A comprehensive look at how models are constructed, used, and an evaluation of the predictions made from these models.
Six IPCCC scenarios -
Carbon dioxide predictions -
Projected Temperature Increases -
Scenarios of Sea Level Change -

QUES. 13: What is the evidence that temperature and carbon dioxide concentrations are correlated? What do the ice core samples tell us about the past climates?

QUES. 14: What is the evidence that the use of fossil fuels, which produce carbon dioxide, is causing climate change? How much carbon dioxide is being produced by various energy producing reactions? Give some numbers.  Are fossil fuels being used excessively and inefficiently in the industrialized countries to provide for the convenience of society?

QUES. 15: Describe how computer models attempt to  model the climate system. How accurate are the computer models in making predictions about global warming? What is the limitation on their accuracy?

3. Causes for Global Warming

Evidence for Correlation of Fossil Fuel Use and Carbon Dioxide

 ProfONotes: Evidence of Fossil Fuel Use

Energy Flow Chart showing carbon dioxide emissions -

Greenhouse Gas Emissions - EPA

Vulcan Project - Detailed plots of Carbon Dioxide Emissions by source
Vulcan Carbon Dioxide Emissions Flyover - video

Carbon Cycle and Combustion of Fossil Fuels

ProfONotes:Combustion Reaction

ProfONotes:Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle - carbon flux - UNEP graphic
Greenhouse gases emission by fuel sector -

 Biomass burning and deforestation

Biomass Burning - Earth Observatory

Tropical Deforestation - Earth Observatory

 Emissions of Greenhouse Gases

 National Emissions Reports - EPA

Top 20 Countries in Carbon Dioxide Emissions

4. Consequences and Impacts of Global Warming -

 General Impact Links

 Impacts - Health and Environmental - EPA

Impact Graphics links (many) - UNEP

 Sea Level Increases

 Sea Level Changes - UNEP - Graphic

What are the effects of sea level changes?

Sea Level Changes - EPA

Sea Ice shrinking

Antarctic series of photos

Arctic Ocean series of photos

 Agriculture

Agriculture Changes - UNEP

Carbon Storage - Earth Observatory

Agriculture Vulnerability - EPA

 Biodiversity and Ecological Changes

 Biodiversity - UNEP

 Water Resources

Water Resource Changes - UNEP

Water Resources - EPA

 Climate disaster and Extreme Weather

 Extreme Weather - UNEP

QUES. 16: What are some the consequences or impacts to the environment and human society should global warming occur? Each student can choose TWO topics from above.

5. Actions to Limit the Impact of Global Warming

 Variety of links and actions

Actions at all Levels - EPA - Look at the series of links in the side menu.

 Alternative Energy Sources

Alternate energy Fact Sheets

Remove carbon dioxide from fossil fuel power generation and store it underground.

 Carbon Sequestration

QUES. 17: What are the economic ramifications of a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions mandate? Is it possible to switch over to "clean" technologies while still using fossil fuels? Can alternative energies realistically be brought on line fast enough that the use of fossil fuels would be discouraged?  Alternate fuels cost more than fossil fuels.

QUES. 18: Should people be charged a tax to more accurately reflect the damage done to the environment by the use of excessive energy? In other words should taxes be brought to a level where gasoline costs $3-4 per gallon as they are in Europe to discourage gas guzzling cars and SUV's?  Do Americans have a "right" to cheap gasoline?

4. IV.Issue Question:  Should the United States and other countries around the world engage in Global Climate Change Treaty to reduce greenhouse gases through a Cap and Trade Program?
   
   Objective 4: Decision Making
   
   

General Information Sites for the Issue Debate Question

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -
Essential Background - Can use links in the box and the upper right of this site for more info
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - IPCC  - Summary of the 2007 Report
IPCC reports and summaries - Wikipedia

Cap and Trade Basics -
What is Cap and Trade? -

Putting a Price on Cap and Trade

Review of current U.S. Congress Energy Bill

What is Cap and Trade

Cap and Trade EPA - look at some of the side menu for more info

Lengthy article on Cap and Trade Policy

Carbon Dioxide emission by country -

 Sites which support the "YES" side

Environmental Defense Fund series on Global Warming - Explore this site with many other links
EPA  Climate Change Page -  Lots of sub menus to explore

 Sites which support the "NO" side

Flawed Logic of Cap and Trade
Cap and Trade Pro/Con  - both sides

Global Warming Skeptics - also contains other links
Climate Change Reconsidered - lengthy article and can access left side menus

Wikipedia Skeptics on Global Warming

Issue Debate Question:

Should the United States and other countries around the world engage in Global Climate Change Treaty to reduce greenhouse gases through  Cap and Trade Program?

Currently, the U.S. Congress is debating  an energy bill which includes such a Cap and Trade Program, no agreement has been reached.  The European countries have such a program already in existence at part of the previous Climate Change Treaty called the Koyoto Protocol. In December 2009, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change will be meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark to try to reach a final agreement, but no agreement was reached.

Option # 1: Yes. Establish an international agreement on a long term goal for stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere at a level that minimizes the risks to the biosphere and to human societies suing a cap and trade program.

If you endorse this position, make some recommendations about how to reduce the use of fossil fuels or capture the carbon dioxide emitted from them.  This is where the Cap and Trade Program is being pushed.

Option # 2: No. No action is needed because global warming may not caused by the burning of fossil fuels.  A Cap and Trade Program would be ineffective in reducing carbon dioxide and it will be too costly.

The issue debate should include the following in 4- 6 paragraphs:

Where does carbon dioxide come from and does it need to be controlled?

What is a cap and trade program?  Will it be effective in controlling carbon dioxide emissions?

Should various industries purchase the permits or should they be given away free?

Should China and India and other developing countries be required to participate?

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5. V.   Response or Ask a Question - respond or comment to someone else, or use General Questions to ask a general question that the Prof or others might answer.  Extra responses earn extra credit (1 pt/ques. up to 2 points)
   
   Response Format:  What or why is something interesting?  Then add a new perspective or viewpoint.  Needs to be longer than one sentence.
   
   Ask a question Format:  Give a little background of what you already know or what is your interest, then add what you already know, then finally ask your question.
   

Content Question A

Ques. No.      Student ID #

Ques. 1       8, 15, 25

Ques. 2       9, 16, 26         

Ques. 3       10, 17, 27

Ques. 4       1, 11, 28

Ques. 5       2, 19, 29

Ques. 6      3, 20, 30

Ques. 7      4, 18, 21

Ques. 8       5, 12, 22, 7. 24

Ques. 9       6, 13, 14, 23,

Content Question B

Ques. 10       2, 20, 30

Ques. 11       6, 14, 24         

Ques. 12       10, 18, 28

Ques. 13       1, 19, 29

Ques. 14       3, 7, 8, 15, 25,

Ques. 15      9, 11, 17, 27

Ques. 16       5, 13, 23, 16

Ques. 17       8, 16, 27, 26

Ques. 18       4, 12, 21, 22

Charles E. Ophardt, Professor of Chemistry, Elmhurst College, Elmhurst, IL 60126, charleso at elmhurst.edu, Copyright 2009